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  • The Detrimental Effect of Brain-Drain on the Scientific Community

    The Detrimental Effect of Brain-Drain on the Scientific Community

    A highly educated and highly skilled workforce is a valuable resource for any country. Having top-level professionals in several key fields – be they engineers, medical doctors, physicists or programmers – is as important to a country’s development as its natural resources. Sadly, a lot of countries can’t offer a tangible incentive for either professors working in higher education institutions or skilled professionals that have received training in such institutions. For this reason the brunt of the country’s brain power migrates to more developed countries, such as Australia, where they have the opportunity to improve, use cutting edge technology and get a handsome reward for their work.

    This means that developing countries – such as India and South Africa – often find themselves in a paradoxical situation where they need to improve the social and financial situation in order to keep their intellectual elite, but they need that same highly skilled workforce in order to work out the problems and improve the conditions within the country. Developed countries, on the other hand, benefit greatly from the phenomenon of brain-drain as they see a steady increase of highly educated and technically proficient professionals from both the local populace and those coming in from different countries.

    It has been shown over and over again that out of the total number of students who come from developing countries to study in universities in America, Canada, UK or Australia, only a small number actually return home. This is great news for developed countries – they provide optimal conditions for the local populace to receive higher education, but they also get young, intelligent people from across the globe who come and stay, as well as fully trained professionals who actually received their training abroad and come looking for a job. Thus, the scientific community becomes saturated and there is a lot more competition – which leads to only the very best being at the forefront of their respective fields. For this reason there is constant innovation and improvement, so countries such as Australia take the lead when it comes to technological development while some countries with the weaker economies that actually have a pretty good education system lag behind.

    The Australian government strives to make it easy for these talented individuals to come into the country, offering a migration program that enables people to earn visas based on their skills. There is such a huge influx of skilled professionals that many professions reach full saturation and are removed from the Skilled Occupations List (SOL), which means that at this point Australia has more skilled professionals available in certain sectors than it actually needs. While this is a great for Australia, countries in dire need of skilled professionals get left out of the equation and are faced with more banal problems. Brain-drain only increases the gap between developed and developing countries, which leads to a lot of very important problems – e.g. famine and disease – being overlooked or inadequately addressed. There is no simple solution for this technological monopoly, but we have to start thinking on a more global level if we are to progress to the next step in our evolution as an advanced civilization.

  • The source of creativity

    The source of creativity

    Every creative writer was asked the question at least once at a social event with non-writers: “Where do you get your ideas?

  • Things Every Young Scientist Should Know About Industrial Science

    Things Every Young Scientist Should Know About Industrial Science

    Pretty much every industry has some glaring problems that have yet to be addressed – change comes slowly, but it does come and we strive to improve. However, with the scientific industry some of the problems are not that obvious or easy to resolve. As you would expect from a group of highly educated and skilled intellectuals, things tend to get a bit complicated. While some people are content to be academics and focus on teaching, a number of scientists feel that there is much more opportunity to actually make a difference in the industrial sector and the fact that there is more money involved is a great motivation as well. However, a career in science involves some sacrifices.

    For instance, working for a company means that a scientist doesn’t have a lot of freedom when it comes to research. You will be paid to do to a job, and like with any job the higher-ups will expect results and have you follow strict rules. Higher education also means devoting yourself full-time to studying and researching, all the way through your mid and late twenties. So those looking for a job will need to wait quite a bit before they earn their doctorates.

    It’s a very competitive environment

    The nature of the industry itself doesn’t always allow for a relatively seamless transition from studying to getting a job. Simply put, there is a lot of competition. Companies have a big pool of skilled scientists to choose from and there are a lot of highly educated immigrants with PhD’s coming to the country. The Australian government is providing incentive for scientists from all over the world to come to Australia, where they have a job waiting for them. This means that young scientists will be up against a huge number of very capable competitors. Employees are often needed for a part-time position or are recruited for a particular project, so even if a person gets chosen out of the mass of eager scientists they don’t necessarily have job security.

    It’s often hard to keep up with technology

    As previously mentioned the technology used in a number of different fields evolves very rapidly and keeping up with it requires constant training. On the most basic level, even things like data entry and writing reports requires a proficiency and digital literacy, and not everyone feels comfortable with the software. A lot of the time employers will assume that everyone already knows how to use existing software optimally or they expect you to catch up on the fly. For someone who has already spent a good part of their life studying and improving their knowledge in a very specialized area this presents an additional burden and can lead to dissatisfaction and lack of motivation. Companies that offer training can keep their employees engaged and improve productivity, but this way of getting everyone up to speed is often neglected. More often than not people will be left to their own devices.

    All in all, devoting  life to science is a noble cause, and there is both money to be made and an opportunity to produce some tangible results in the field of industrial science, but starting a career in this field is a difficult endeavor that requires tons of dedication and patience.

  • The Fuel of the Future

    The Fuel of the Future

    It seems it came time to say goodbye to gasoline. As it is known, the petroleum resources are running out and very soon we will stay without them. Also, it pollutes air and it causes a great risk to human’s health. And finally, there is a money concerns. People are no longer willing to pay high prices that oil companies are charging for it. And why should they, if there are a lot of different alternative sources of energy. Automotive industry knows all of this and it is investing a lot of time and money to find and develop the fuel of the future.

    The search is on, but what will the fuel of the future be? Believe or not, the answer is simple. An air! It’s all around us. It’s free. And most importantly, it is not polluting. Sounds unbelievable, we know. But, it is not that simple as it appears.

    ­­Unluckily, air alone cannot be used as a fuel. First of all, energy has to be stored in it by squeezing the air using a mechanical air compressor. Once the compressed air is released, it expands. The expanding air can be used to drive the pistons that power an engine.

    Amazingly, the idea of using compressed air to power a vehicle is not new. Early prototypes of an air-powered vehicle were constructed before the invention of the internal combustion engine.

    air car

    How Compressed Air Can be Used as a Fuel?

    ­By the laws of physics, uncontained gases will fill any given space. On the other hand, compressing a gas into a small space is a way to store energy. When the gas expands again, that energy is released to do work. That’s the basic principle which governs an air car.

    It is expected that the first air cars will have air compressors built into them. After a drive, you’ll be able to take the car home, put it into the garage and plug in the compressor. The compressor will use air from around the car to refill the compressed air tank. Unfortunately, this is a rather slow method of refueling. It will probably take up to two hours for a complete refill. If this idea catches on, air refueling stations will become available at ordinary gas stations. Filling your tank at the pump should probably take about 3 minutes.

    How Compressed Air Car Can be Caracterised Nowadays?

    Today’s compassed air cars are far from perfect. As anything else, this technology has its advantages and disadvantages. Here are the main pluses and minuses of this technology.

    Pluses

    1. It uses no gasoline or other bio-carbon based fuel.

    2. Refueling could be done at home using an air compressor or at service stations. The energy required for compressing air is produced at large centralized plants.

    3. Compressed air engines reduce the cost of vehicle production, because there is no need to build a cooling system, spark plugs, starter motor, or mufflers.

    4. The rate of self-discharge is very low opposed to batteries that deplete their charge slowly over time. Therefore, the vehicle may be left unused for longer periods of time than electric cars.

    5. Expansion of the compressed air lowers its temperature; this may be exploited for use as air conditioning.

    6. Reduction or elimination of hazardous chemicals such as gasoline or battery acids/metals

    7. Some mechanical configurations may allow energy recovery during braking by compressing and storing air.

    Minuses

    1. The principal disadvantage is the indirect use of energy. Energy is used to compress air, which – in turn – provides the energy to run the motor. Any conversion of energy between forms results in loss.

    2. When air is compressed to fill the tank, its temperature increases up. If the stored air is not cooled while the tank is being filled, then when the air cools off later, its pressure decreases and the available energy decreases.

    3. Refueling the compressed air container using a home or low-end conventional air compressor may take as long as 4 hours, though specialized equipment at service stations may fill the tanks in only 3 minutes.

    4. The overall efficiency of a vehicle using compressed air energy storage, using the above refueling figures, is around 5-7%. For comparison, well to wheel efficiency of a conventional internal-combustion drivetrain is about 14%.

    Conclusion

    Despite these drawbacks, big car companies are still exploring the use of compressed air in a hybrid drivetrain setup. Compressed air vehicles are also remarkably quiet and, discounting the air compressors themselves, produce absolutely no emissions. They’re also very, very cheap to operate. This could make them ideal city service vehicles. Until then, compressed air cars have a long, long way to go.

  • Bridging our big broadband gap

    Bridging our big broadband gap

    New research report reveals the impact of next generation broadband for Australian households and businesses.

    Despite living in the ‘Digital Age’, Australia is currently not prepared to fully take advantage of the services afforded by next generation broadband according to a new groundbreaking research report released today.

    Developed by the Australian Centre for Broadband Innovation (ACBI) and CSIRO’s Digital Productivity and Services Flagship, the ‘Broadband Impact and Challenges’ report provides fresh insights and evidence to better understand the impact and opportunities offered by next generation broadband as well as advice on the necessary steps needed to mitigate the associated risks. The report was compiled out of key findings from comprehensive community surveys, interviews with businesses and thought leaders as well as detailed analyses of existing data sources and peer-reviewed economic and social research.

    “Although we are living in an increasingly ‘Digital Age’ full of smart devices, tele-working and social networks, one in five Australian adults still do not use the internet,” said Colin Griffith, Director of the Australian Centre for Broadband Innovation.

    “Recognising that more and more government and business services are delivered online, a key focus of our research is to understand the behaviour and capabilities of adoption and use of next generation broadband. Across the board we have found that giving more people and businesses the skills and confidence to use these broadband services effectively, will not only have a positive impact on their quality of life and business success, but also create broader economic benefits.”

    Interviews with industry and government stakeholders cited a lack of certainty about the future rollout of Australia’s broadband infrastructure as being a significant barrier in helping them prepare for the future.

    “Like other major Australian infrastructure projects such as the Snowy River Mountain Scheme and the Sydney Harbour Bridge Harbour Bridge, the debate around our national broadband infrastructure has predominately focused on cost and scale. While these are important discussions, our research highlighted that government, industry and the community need to invest in capability building through training and investment programs if we are to fully realise the benefits of next generation broadband,” said Mr Griffith.

    The report also includes a number of key insights to help government and businesses prepare for some of the potential threats which next generation broadband may bring.

    “Along with its many benefits, next generation broadband will also create challenges for Australia, accelerating disruption to businesses, jobs and services. If we are to mitigate the potential threats than active leadership at all levels of society and across different organisations is needed to ensure that there is strategic investment in capacity building and innovation to help safeguard our digital future,” said Mr Griffith.

    “Ultimately, it is the capabilities of every person and business that will determine the overall level of benefit realised for Australia in terms of jobs, improvement in productivity and quality of life.”

    The ‘Broadband Impact and Challenges’ report was officially launched to a group of industry and government stakeholders at an event in Sydney this morning.

    Source and image.

  • It’s electricity, but not as we know it

    It’s electricity, but not as we know it

    Australia’s electricity landscape could change significantly in the future and consumers will be deciding just what that future will look like.

    A new report from the Future Grid Forum, Change and choice: The Future Grid Forum’s analysis of Australia’s potential electricity pathways to 2050, looks at a range of opportunities and presents four scenarios, not predictions, through which we can view potential futures for our national electricity system.

    CSIRO Energy Flagship Chief Economist, Paul Graham, said recent declining demand, higher electricity prices and strong adoption of roof-top solar panels have changed the industry’s view of what is plausible in the future and trained a focus on affordability challenges.

    “All of the choices in the Future Grid Forum scenarios have consequences for the price of electricity, something that has significantly impacted consumers in recent years with the average household electricity price increasing by two-thirds between 2007 and 2012,” Mr Graham said.

    “Electricity will not get cheaper in the coming decades, but bills can be reduced through the adoption of energy efficiency, peak demand management and on-site generation.

    “These steps, in combination with general wages growth, means the share of income average households spend on electricity is projected to be similar – shifting marginally from 2.5 per cent in 2013 to between 2.3 and 2.9 per cent in 2050 depending on the scenario.”

    The Forum also projected that technology will allow more sophisticated ways of managing household demand during peak times through the introduction of devices such as smart air conditioners and in-home storage systems.

    “Better strategies for peak demand management could save two cents per kilowatt hour or $1.4 billion per annum on distribution costs for households,” Mr Graham said.

    Electricity has traditionally been a service with which consumers have not proactively engaged, but the Forum’s scenarios present a number of ways for people to take greater control of how they consume and produce electricity.

    “This proactive shift could potentially influence the business model for the electricity sector, encouraging the emergence of new services to supply an individually tailored product – not dissimilar to the telecommunications industry shift from a one-size-fits-all landline telephone system to a wide variety of mobile and associated data and entertainment services,” Mr Graham said.

    “One of the Forum’s scenarios looks at the option for around a third of consumers to disconnect from the electricity grid through the use of on-site generation using technologies like rooftop solar panels and battery storage; and this is projected to be economically viable from around 2030 to 2040.

    “Under the full range of scenarios Australia could see on-site generation grow from the current figure of 8 per cent to reach between 18 and 45 per cent of total generation by 2050, but mostly while staying connected and using the grid as an electricity trading platform,” Mr Graham said.

    The Forum findings are a starting point from which all stakeholders can begin to understand, manage and benefit from changes to the electricity system.

    “This is an extraordinary time of change for Australia’s electricity industry and the Forum partners see the release of this report as an opportunity to begin a national conversation to decide the right answers for the sector, its stakeholders and, most importantly, all Australians,” Mr Graham said.

    Source and image.

  • Weekly Science Picks

    Weekly Science Picks

    Builder Bees - photo via Gizmodo.com
    Builder Bees – photo via Gizmodo.com

    Welcome to Weekly Science Picks!

    Here are some of the top science stories that caught my eye this past week. A smorgasbord of science stories, if you will. Topics include farming in the African desert, the publish or perish dilemma of academia, the wiring patterns of the male and female brains and skilled builder bees. Hope you enjoy.

     

    Sudan hopes technology will transform farming by James Copnall

    The idea is to produce hundreds of Sudanese “super cows” that will produce much more milk than local breeds.

     

    Peter Higgs: I wouldn’t be productive enough for today’s academic system by Dekka Aitkenhead

    Peter Higgs, the British physicist who gave his name to the Higgs boson, believes no university would employ him in today’s academic system because he would not be considered “productive” enough.

     

    How Men’s Brains Are Wired Differently Than Women’s by Tanya Lewis and LiveScience

    The research, which involved imaging the brains of nearly 1,000 adolescents, found that male brains had more connections within hemispheres, whereas female brains were more connected between hemispheres. The results, which apply to the population as a whole and not individuals, suggest that male brains may be optimized for motor skills, and female brains may be optimized for combining analytical and intuitive thinking.

     

    These genetically-modified bees make concrete instead of honey – Original post by GEOFF MANAUGH on GIZMODO

    For an ongoing collaborative project, New York-based architect John Becker and I have been looking at the possibility of using bees that have been genetically modified to print concrete as architectural printheads.
    Until next time, stay thirsty for knowledge.
  • Helping miners find the right water balance

    Helping miners find the right water balance

    The coal mining industry will be better equipped to manage water and deal with extreme weather events, thanks to a new model developed by CSIRO.

    The model, to be unveiled at the 20th International Congress on Modelling and Simulation (MODSIM2013), aims to forecast future mine water needs and will help the industry address the challenges of both excessive water and insufficient water on mine sites. The research was conducted in Queensland’s Bowen Basin, home to Australia’s largest coal reserves, and one of the most highly variable climates in the world.

    Professor Damian Barrett, head of CSIRO’s Water in the Resources Sector research, said a key challenge for the industry is to maintain mine water storage at an optimal level to ensure water security for mine operations during drought but also to eliminate unregulated discharges during flood periods.

    “The coal mining industry is accountable for managing its mine water use, including complying with discharge regulations,” said Professor Barrett. “Our research is demonstrating how to reach the ‘Goldilocks’ state in water management. That is, not having too much or too little water but having just the right amount of water on mine sites for when it is needed.”

    The model is depicted through three perspectives: the business perspective capturing the mine operation practices within a mine or across several mines or companies; the environmental perspective representing all the climate change patterns such as rainfall and catchment histories and weather forecast data; and the decision perspective which considers tradeoffs by demonstrating how to develop strategies to best meet business needs while considering environmental constraints and opportunities.

    “We applied the scenario model to a number of constructed case studies including single mine sites and multiple mines sites, with the multiple mine site case studies exploring water sharing and trading opportunities among mine sites,” said Professor Barrett. “This methodology provides a rigorous and objective technique for developing management strategies and assessing risk.”

    The model was developed as part of a suite of broader CSIRO research in the coal mines of the Bowen Basin. Research in the region is providing strategies to help the industry forecast mine water quantity and quality, improve water use efficiency onsite and improve understanding of the impacts of mine water use on regional water.

    “Through improved seasonal climate forecasts, the assessment of the effectiveness of water sharing and trading among multiple sites and the cost benefit analysis of establishing water management infrastructure, our research is helping to guide the coal industry towards better water management that balances the needs of business with the needs of the environment,” said Professor Barrett.

    The comprehensive suite of work undertaken by CSIRO through its Water for a Healthy Country Flagship to improve water resource management in the mining sector will be presented at MODSIM on Thursday 5 December. MODSIM runs from Sunday 1 to Friday 6 December 2013 at the Adelaide Convention Centre, Adelaide, South Australia. The MODSIM theme for this year is ‘Adapting to change: the multiple roles of modelling’ and is expected to attract in excess of 800 national and international delegates.

    Source and image.

  • Get the conversation started

    Get the conversation started

    Ever wondered how vaccines work, why whales strand themselves or if luck really exists? The Explainer: From Déjà Vu to Why the Sky is Blue and Other Conundrums is a collection of straightforward, accessible, and engaging explanations from those in the know on those everyday concepts that may have made you stop and wonder.

    Written by academic experts with deep subject expertise, the book shares knowledge on diverse topics: from animals and agriculture, climate and energy, the body and medical myths, technology and more. Curious readers will discover accessible answers to questions such as: what is gravity? Can you pay-off a sleep-debt? What is dreaming, forgetting, depression?

    Managing Editor of The Conversation, Misha Ketchell, said: “This book makes the knowledge of academic experts available to everyone. It’s full of fascinating facts that can inform public debate or just be enjoyed for their own sake. The Explainer is perfect for indulging curiosity, settling bets or sparking a conversation.”

    CSIRO’s Dr Mark Lonsdale said: “Armed with this book you can do more than simply start the discussion – you can marshal the explanatory information to help inform it.”

    The book is a collaboration between CSIRO PUBLISHING and The Conversation, Australia’s largest independent news and commentary sites, where the articles were originally published.

    Source and image.

  • Indian Ocean phenomenon helping to predict extreme weather

    Indian Ocean phenomenon helping to predict extreme weather

    A phenomenon in the Indian Ocean that affects events in southeast Australia is helping to predict extreme weather up to six months in advance.

    The phenomenon, the Indian Ocean Dipole, is the difference in sea-surface temperatures between the western and eastern part of the Indian Ocean, and until recently has been one of the most influential but the least understood natural forces affecting Australia’s climate.

    An international team of scientists, led by CSIRO Wealth from Ocean Flagship’s Dr Wenju Cai, confirmed the link and have published their findings in the journal Nature Geoscience.

    A better understanding of the relationship between the Indian Ocean Dipole and extreme weather events will enable farmers, industry, communities and governments to better anticipate and prepare for droughts and increased bushfire risk, up to six months in advance of the event.

    Just as the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) affects weather patterns across the Pacific Ocean, the Indian Ocean Dipole influences weather and extreme events across the Indian Ocean. While ENSO fluctuates between ‘El Nino’, ‘neutral’ and ‘La Nina’ phases, the Dipole fluctuates between ‘positive’, ‘neutral’ and ‘negative’ phases approximately every three to eight years.

    The positive phase is characterised by greater-than-average sea-surface temperatures, more rain in the western Indian Ocean region and cooler waters in the eastern Indian Ocean. It tends to cause droughts in East Asia and Australia, and flooding in parts of the Indian subcontinent and East Africa.

    Positive Dipole activity has, to date, preconditioned major wildfires in southeast Australia, caused coral reef death across western Sumatra, and exacerbated malaria outbreaks in East Africa.

    Dr Cai said the findings provide greater confidence in predicting extreme weather up to two seasons in advance, and furthermore, projecting positive IOD events into the future.

    “Over the past 50 years, the Dipole has been trending upwards, increasing the number of positive events, occurring an unprecedented 11 times over the past 30 years,

  • The smart software fighting fire with fire

    The smart software fighting fire with fire

    Australia’s key disaster management agencies have joined forces to tackle the problem of how to access and interpret information gathered during bushfires, and other natural disasters to help emergency services save lives and property.

    “Currently, there are many ways emergency services and the community accesses official, crowd sourced and social media information during natural disasters,

  • Challenges of Wireless Cryptography

    Challenges of Wireless Cryptography

    As companies and individuals increasingly use wireless technologies for their significant communications, they also must be assured of security using proper cryptographic algorithms. The major fields of applications are mobile e-commerce transactions, e-mails and corporate data transaction. On the other hand, as wireless systems grow in popularity and carry valuable information, hackers are directing their attacks on these novel targets. The need for secure wireless transport of audio, video and data across wide area networks has become crucially important for almost everyone. This is a great issue because wireless devices were not originally designed with security as a top priority. Nowadays, wireless security is becoming a very important and challenging area of research and development. In this article we discuss the potentials of wireless security protocols (WEP, WPA and WPA2/802.11i) used today and security aspects of wireless communication systems as well.

    Introduction

    Mobility and broadband media services are two crucial demands of modern telecommunication networks. The fast progress in wireless communication systems, smart card technologies and personal communication systems provides new opportunities and challenges for scientist and engineers working on the security problems of new communication systems and technologies. In general, public-key cryptography offers a lot of solutions to many of concerning security problems in communication systems. However, big computational requirements have limited the use of public-key cryptography on wireless communication systems.

    Encryption mechanisms can be classified as: symmetric or asymmetric. The both are of static state. A new approach follows the stream key generation mechanism, which involves time dimension into the key generation and brings up dynamic keys, one per each data record. The symmetric key is taken into consideration, but in a dynamic streaming environment. A static key is generated once and stored at location for performing encryption later. On the other hand, a dynamic key is initialized by a central authority.

    In WLANs, privacy is obtained by data protected with encryption. Without encryption, any other standard wireless device can read all traffic in network. There are three major generations of security approaches:

    (1)   WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy),
    (2)   WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access),
    (3)   WPA2/802.11i (Wi-Fi Protection Access, Version 2).

    Each of these protocols can have name that is personal and enterprise template. In this article, it will be listed and explained the main sorts of wireless protocols.

    Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP)

    Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) is a security algorithm for IEEE 802.11 wireless networks. Introduced in September 1999, its intention was to provide data confidentiality comparable to that of a traditional wired network. WEP is recognized thanks to the key of 10 or 26 hexadecimal digits. It is widely in use and is frequently the first security option given to users by router configuration tools.

    In the sender side, WEP uses four operations to encrypt the data (plaintext). Firstly, the secret key used in WEP algorithm is 40-bit long and has a 24-bit Initialization Vector (IV). This vector is focused to acting as the encryption/decryption key. At second, the resulting key behaves as the seed for a Pseudo-Random Number Generator (PRNG). Thirdly, the plaintext is put into a integrity algorithm and focuses using the plaintext again. Fourthly, the result of key sequence and IV will go to RC4 algorithm. In other words, a final encryption message is made by attaching the IV in front of the Cipher text.

    In the recipient side, WEP uses five operations to decrypt the received side (IV + Cipher text). Firstly, the Pre-Shared Key and IV are used to form a secret key. At second, the Cipher text and Secret Key go to CR4 algorithm and as a result there is a plaintext. At third, the IV and plaintext will separate. Fourthly, the plaintext goes to Integrity Algorithm to make a new IV and finally the new IV compared to original IV.

    Two methods of authentication may be applied to WEP: Open System authentication and Shared Key authentication. Here will be discussed WEP authentication in the Infrastructure mode which is between a WLAN client and an Access Point. All this can be applied to the Ad-Hoc mode as well. In Open System authentication, the WLAN client need not provide its credentials to the Access Point during authentication. Any client can authenticate with the Access Point and then attempt to associate. In fact, no authentication happens. WEP keys can be used for encrypting data frames. The client must have the correct keys.

    In Shared Key authentication, the WEP key is used for authentication in a four step challenge-response handshake:

    1.   The client sends an authentication request to the Access Point.

    2.   The Access Point replies with a clear-text challenge.

    3.   The client encrypts the challenge-text using the configured WEP key, and sends it back in another authentication request.

    4.   The Access Point decrypts the response. If this matches the challenge-text the Access Point sends back a positive reply.

    After all this, the pre-shared WEP key is also used for data frames encryption using RC4. At first glance, it might seem that Shared Key authentication is more secure than Open System authentication, although the latter offers no real authentication. But, it is quite the opposite. It is possible to derive the key-stream used for the handshake by capturing the challenge frames in Shared Key authentication. It has been advised to use Open System authentication for WEP authentication, rather than Shared Key authentication.

    The major weaknesses and enhancements of WEP protocol are given in reference [1] and are as follows:

    1.   WEP does not prevent forgery of packets.
    2.   WEP does not prevent replay attacks. An attacker can simply record and reply packets as desired and they will be accepted as legitimate.
    3.   WEP uses RC4 improperly. The used keys are very weak and can be brute-forced on standard computers quickly using freely available software.
    4.   WEP re-uses IVs. Many cryptanalytic methods can decrypt data without knowing the encryption key.
    5.   WEP allows an attacker to undetectably modify a message without knowing the encryption key.
    6.   Key management is lack and updating is poor.
    7.   Problem in the RC4 algorithm.
    8.   Easy forging of authentication messages.

    Implemented non-standard fixes of WEP protocol are as follows:

    I. WEP2

    This stopgap enhancement to WEP was present in some of the early 802.11i drafts. It was implementable on some (not all) hardware not able to handle WPA or WPA2, and extended both the IV and the key values to 128 bits. It was hoped to eliminate the duplicate IV deficiency as well as stop brute force key attacks. After it became clear that the overall WEP algorithm was deficient (and not just the IV and key sizes) and would require even more fixes, both the WEP2 name and original algorithm were dropped. The two extended key lengths remained in what eventually became WPA’s TKIP.

    II. WEP plus

    WEP plus, also known as WEP+, is a proprietary enhancement to WEP by Agere Systems (formerly a subsidiary of Lucent Technologies) that enhances WEP security by avoiding “weak IVs”. It is only completely effective when WEP plus is used at both ends of the wireless connection. As this cannot easily be enforced, it remains a serious limitation. It also does not necessarily prevent replay attacks, and is ineffective against later statistical attacks that do not rely on weak IVs.

    III. Dynamic WEP

    Dynamic WEP refers to the combination of 802.1x technology and the Extensible Authentication Protocol. Dynamic WEP changes WEP keys dynamically. It is a vendor-specific feature provided by several vendors such as 3Com. The dynamic change idea made it into 802.11i as part of TKIP, but not for the actual WEP algorithm.

    Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA)

    Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) and Wi-Fi Protected Access II (WPA2) are two security protocols and security certification programs developed by the Wi-Fi Alliance to secure wireless computer networks.

    WPA became available in 2003. The Wi-Fi Alliance intended WPA as an intermediate measure to take the place of WEP pending the availability of the full IEEE 802.11i standard. WPA could be implemented through firmware upgrades on wireless network interface cards designed for WEP. Since the changes required in the wireless access points (APs) were more extensive than those needed on the network cards.

    The WPA protocol implements much of the IEEE 802.11i standard. Specifically, the Temporal Key Integrity Protocol (TKIP) was adopted for WPA. WPA also includes a message integrity check. This is designed to prevent an attacker from capturing, altering and/or resending data packets. This replaces the cyclic redundancy check (CRC) that was used by the WEP standard. WPA uses a message integrity check algorithm called Michael to verify the integrity of the packets.

    Wi-Fi Protection Access, Version 2 (WPA2)

    WPA2 has changed WPA. WPA2 demands testing and certification by the Wi-Fi Alliance and uses the mandatory elements of IEEE 802.11i. In particular, it introduces CCMP, which is a new AES-based encryption mode with strong security. After only several years, WPA2 certification is mandatory for all new devices to bear the Wi-Fi trademark. The Wi-Fi Alliance intended it as an intermediate measure in anticipation of the availability of the more secure and complex WPA2. WPA2 became available in 2004 and is common shorthand for the full IEEE 802.11i (or IEEE 802.11i-2004) standard.

    Conclusion

    Wireless and mobile networks are rapidly extending their capabilities. In addition to their increasing bandwidth and because of their flexibility and freedom they are becoming the communication infrastructure of choice. Wireless communication provides a user the capability of conducting commerce at anytime, with nearly anyone, from anywhere, using a mobile communication channel. This mobile communication channel can also be used as an access method to the Internet.

    References:

    1.   Cryptography and Network Security: Principles and Practice, William Stallings, Prentice-Hall, Inc., New Jersey, 1999.
    2.   Designing and Developing 802.11n Wireless Networks, Jim Geler, Cisco Systems, Inc., 2010.
    3.   Wireless Mesh Networking: Architectures, Protocols and Standards, Yan Zhang, Jijun Luo, Honglin Hu, Auerbach Publications, Taylor & Francis Group, New York, 2007.

  • Weekly Science Picks

    Weekly Science Picks

    That time of the week again, where we run down some of the more interesting science happenings on the internets.

    ISON is dead, long live ISON!

    Back at the start of this year, in mapping out what the new year would have in store for the science stories to come, comet ISON topped our list.

    “October it will pass very near Mars and possibly be visible to rovers and orbiting spacecraft. The newly discovered comet could develop a spectacular tail, becoming as bright as the full Moon as it passes by our Sun. The comet is currently falling toward the Sun from between the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn. There is a chance it won’t survive this encounter. Whatever survives will then pass nearest the Earth in late 2013 December.

  • The Best of Australian Science: November 2013

    The Best of Australian Science: November 2013

    It is time to recount November’s highlights, the most read and interesting articles from the month in the fields of science, education, internet technologies, biology, environment, health, among others.

    If you are interested in science blogging and contributing to Australian Science – contact us and check out the Editor’s note.

    Stay curious and scientifically passionate! I hope you’ll enjoy these stories.

    If Ada can, so can we by Danielle Spencer

    I have written before about the need to encourage our girls to pursue science in school and beyond. From my experience, girls at school are often reluctant to participate in science at first, until they are shown the possibilities that science offers. Girls need people to aspire to. Girls need to be shown that they are just as capable. With the recent celebration of Ada Lovelace Day last month, I set two of my young 12 year old female students on a mission: to find out about the significance of the day and explore the roles of females in science. The following piece is their writing.  Read more>>

     

    Love of Language by Charles Ebikeme

    “Canicule!